Vol 47 (2018)
ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY
101-125 334
Abstract
Values and standards of contemporary Japan preserved a significant number of traditional elements. Commonly it is believed that economic achievements of this country and so called “economic miracle” of 60-80s last century were relevant to them. Behavior of Japanese in business contacts among themselves and with foreigners was also influenced by the specifics of natural conditions and combination of different cultural and religious values, born inside and brought from outside. For a long time many attempts were made to comprehend the reasons why the economic achievements of Japan have been so great. In 1980s and 1990s western literature on the negotiation's technique with the Japanese strived to find the “key” to the psychology of Japanese businessmen, to recognize the “logic” and “symbolism" of his behavior. The article does not have an ambition to give comprehensive answers to these questions. It presents only a general review of many assessments given in numerous studies on this subject, and express own assessment of both false and just, exaggerated or dependent on circumstances. And the topic itself is considered in a certain dynamics. It is emphasized that in the 90s the situation for Japanese business began to change. Alongside the growth of Japanese investments abroad, the mass entry of national companies into the international arena, Japanese negotiators began to change their behavior and adapt to external conditions. Nevertheless they managed to preserve the traditional system of values. The national business culture has adapted to international standards, while preserving its cultural “core”. Special attention is paid to the problem of the psychology in business negotiations and in the course of contacts. Such factors are considered as mutual understanding and trust; preliminary deep inquiring of the likelihood of success in negotiations; the role of language and the quality of translation; partner selection criteria; criteria for choosing the place and time of negotiations; behavior at the talks, on the sidelines and at receptions and other on the surface small, but very important elements. However the primary focus is on the choice of behavior strategy.
126-148 412
Abstract
The article discusses the main directions of influence of the system of lifetime employment on contemporary Japanese society. This system has evolved over several decades and has become a major form of labor management in large Japanese companies by the end of 1960s. However, the real scope of its impact was much broader, as not only the middle, but also small companies tried to use in a given volume of its basic elements in order to increase the work motivation of employees. Due to the fact, that the system of lifetime employment was based on the fundamental characteristics of the national culture and psychology, it is not only perceived by workers as a reasonable, fair, responsive to their ideas of what a company is and how it should be managed, but also became the foundation on which and around which were formed a system of values and way of life of several post-war generations of Japanese. Since the early 1990s, the economy and society began to change, call into question the very existence of the lifetime employment system. However, it proved to be quite flexible and thanks to a series of measures taken by Japanese companies, was able to adapt to the changes that have taken place over the past quarter of a century in the economy and society. These measures include reducing of hiring permanent workers, a change in wage system, designed to make it more adequate to the new conditions, relaxation of the rigid conditions of lifetime employment by introducing a “restricted permanent employee” status and a number of others. However, norms and stereotypes generated by the system were much less mobile and flexible, and it became the cause of a number of painful phenomena in Japanese society. Among them - the “second-rate” position of non-permanent workers (in terms of remuneration, the scope of social security, access to the system of in-house training, and social status as well), the preservation of gender inequality in employment and in family relations, the polarization of Japanese youth by income level and lifestyle, the fall in the marriage rate and birth rate, etc. Since the shifts in public opinion occur slowly enough, Japan is likely to take quite a long time to resolve the contradictions between the entrenched stereotypes and requirements of the time.
149-162 286
Abstract
Each nation has its own national cooking tradition that transmitted from generation to generation. The Japanese cuisine while inexorably adopting food products and dishes of different nations has not lost its identity. Rapid changes that occurred in the second part of the XX century are associated with the westernization of Japanese eating habits. The emphasis shifted from rice and starchy foods, fish, sea products and vegetables to the combination of traditional and western foods such as bread, meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits. Nowadays Japan's food culture includes not only native Japanese cuisine but also many foreign dishes, some of them accommodating themselves to Japanese tastes and some remaining more or less intact. Even so, food consumption patterns of the Japanese nation are rather different from western ones. The Japanese diet retains striking differences from the European and American cuisine, while retaining its specificity - a significant proportion of starchy substances, the predominance of plant proteins over the animal ones, the consumption of animal proteins mostly through fish products and the generally low caloric content in comparison with other developed countries. The nutrition structure of Japanese diet is close to optimal from the viewpoint of healthy food standards. All this attracts attention outside Japan to Japanese food washoku. The main characteristic features of washoku are as follows: fresh ingredients; respect for their inherent flavors; the expression of natural beauty and of the changing seasons in the habits of serving dishes; an exceptionally well-balanced and healthy diet and the close relationship of national cuisine with annual cultural events. Social and cultural features of the Japanese cuisine have particularly vivid manifestations during the New Year ceremonies. At the same time, in recent decades some negative trends appeared, both in the diet structure (such as the overuse of fatty foods) and in the food habits. In recent decades young people tend to eat outside their home; they buy fast food; they skip breakfast and fail to meet with their family in the evening around the dining table. This is the reason why central government and local administration do their best to popularize the positive aspects of traditional food and appeal to the need to comply with the standards of national food culture in order to sustain healthy lifestyle. The registration of the Japanese gastronomy washoku by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in will undoubtedly help their efforts.
HISTORY
163-203 355
Abstract
“Konjaku monogatari-shu”, a collection of Japanese Buddhist setsuwa tales composed in XII c., has been studied by Japanese scholars using Western methodology from the end of XIX and the beginning of XX cc. That is also the time when Western scholars start mentioning it in their works. From the very beginning untill recent times publications dealing with “Konjaku” gave special attention to the appraising of the text: the authors speculated if we could put this record amidst other chefs d’oeuvres of Japanese literature, its main outcomes? Review of those speculations shows us some particularities of the history of XX c. Japanese studies. Depending on the period when this of those study was made we can find there problems of the origins of “Konjaku”, should they be found in folklore or in the literature, of the religious and artistic tasks of “Konjaku”. The answers to all these questions are determinative to a large extent for the suggestions made by scholars about the circumstances of creation of “Konjaku”, its author(s), its composition in the whole and the meaning of its particular tales.
204-220 180
Abstract
This article analyzes a response of various French politicians and political analysts to a new phase of Japanese expansion into China - the occupation of Manchuria in Autumn 1931 known as the “Manchurian Incident”. The League of Nations as well as the governments of almost all Great Powers condemned Japan’s action as “agression” and violation of international law, but numerous influental French political writers, mainly of “right-wing” orientation, openly welcomed Japanese continental policy. This point of view was most meticulously and ably presented by Jacques Bainville (1879-1936), chief political analyst of Royalist Nationalist movement «Action frangaise». According to this opinion only Japan was able to bring into China, split after Xinhai Revolution of 1911, “peace and stability”. Even some left-wing French politicians and analysts, like Socialists Paul Faure and Joseph Paul-Boncour, recognized that overpopulated Japan needed some space for colonization and economic exploitation and can obtain it in Manchuria giving an impulse to the development of this region. French politicians and analysts didn’t consider Japanese expansion into the continent to be a menace to French colonial possessions in Indo-China or to French economical rights and interests in China. Quite the opposite they recognized in this expansion a kind of potential protection against “Communist danger” coming from the USSR and Chinese Communists. This danger may directly touch French possessions in Asia by the way of promoting anti-colonial movements for national liberation. Jacques Bainville warned that conflict between Japan and the League of Nations first of all would weaken European powers’ position in their Asian colonies as well as would strengthen tension between Japan and the USA and so would jeopardize stability in the whole Asia. A study of French opinion and response to Japanese continental policy will not only enrich our knowledge about the history of this period but also will help us to understand better its political philosophy as well as working of the propaganda and image-making systems.
CULTURE
Deities and rituals of Ryukyuan royal court (according to Ryu:Kyu: Shinto:Ki and Omoro sacred songs)
221-238 499
Abstract
In the article for the first time in the Russian and Western Japanese studies the pantheon of the Ryukyuan royal court is analyzed; the article mainly considers the essence of the two supreme court deities Kimmammon (キンマモ ン, 君真物) and Kimitezuri (キミテズリ, 君手摩) and the meaning of the court rituals of the 15th-16th Century, in which they appeared. These two specific deities of the old Ryukyuan religion are described in the local creation myths included in the official texts of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Kimmammon cult is considered; the deity which relates to the visiting deities, or marebito was treated as a heavenly and a sea guardian deity of the Ryuykyuan state. In the 14th-15th C. Kimmammon was a supreme deity of the Ryukyu Kingdom. During this period in the sacred regnal name (神号 shingo) of the Ryuykyuan kings of the Satto Dynasty and the First Sho: Dynasty was the formant -mamono (ryuk. -mamun) taken from the name of the deity Kimmammon. The most important state ritual blessing the ascent of Ryukyuan kings to the throne was also analyzed. The ritual included the appearance of the heavenly deity Kimitezuri which named the ruler a «sacred name» (神号); this gave the ruler a sacral status and meant the deity's giving the king the right to own and rule the country. Basic sources on the issue (Ryu:kyu: Shinto:ki, Chu:zan Seikan, Omoro So:shi) and most important Japanese commentaries and research are used. The analysis is placed in the general Japanese cultural context.
239-254 250
Abstract
Japanese portrait sculpture developed in Buddhist context and never completely divorced itself from that religious setting. From the beginning, the majority of the subjects portrayed were religious personages, whether legendary or historical. Even when lay subjects began to appear in the latter part of Kamakura period, there portraits were enshrined in temples with which they were closely affiliated. The monk portrait, derived from the strong tradition of arhat representation in China and transmitted to Japan, was surrounded by a strongly devotional atmosphere and invested with great religious significance. It was natural for a portrait to be commissioned by the disciples of monk shortly after his death in order to commemorate his memory. They are Ganjin, Gyoshin, Gien, Dokyo and other ones. The content of Japanese portrait sculpture is highly complex: there are portraits that reflect an outlook similar to the European concept of individualism, but there are also states, regarded as objects of worship. The six small figures of the Buddha Amida issuing from mouth of monk Kuya are an embodiment of six-character nembutsu, a prayer formula calling upon Amida recited by adherents of the Pure Land faith. There are a lot of chinso portraits - a formal sculpted portrait of Zen master in the Japanese Temples. The form originated in China when painted portraits were traditionally given by Zen master to his close disciples in recognition of their attainment and evidence of their acceptance in his line. This practice was transmitted to Japan with the introduction of Zen. These last are portrait of monks and founders of religious schools that are often strongly influenced by canons regulating Buddhist images in general. Portrait of layman completely free of influences of religion art are subject to a different tradition. In portraits of venerated monks, which form the body of Japanese portrait sculpture have come to be appreciated as objects of aesthetic value. The original purpose behind the creation of these statues is frequently commemorative. Within a temple complex a hall alternately called eido (portrait hall), kaizando (founder’s hall), shishido (patriarch s hall). The use of statues as objects of worship, the depositing within them of votive objects, and their placement in portrait halls - all these aspects of the Buddhist background are clarified in this article, giving understanding of Japanese portrait sculpture.
255-272 253
Abstract
The intention of research is to show multiplicity of interaction between Shinto and art, which according to author understandably on the example of image of monkeys in décor of seven shrines. Images of monkeys gave a plot for artistic carving. One of most famous in Japan shrine’ s stable situated in Nikko Toshogu, Tochigi prefecture. All plots of eight compositions show in an allegorical form different phases of human life. The decoration of the shrine Chichibu jinja in Saitama prefecture, also has images of monkeys in its sculptures. This alto-relievo calls «Three cheerful monkeys». Another interpretation of this motive can be sighted in incised ornamentation of Nagusa jinja, Yabu city Hyogo Prefecture. The sculpture of four monkeys can be seen on the rafters of tree - storied pagoda. Still on the subject of monkey’s plots, author want to pay attention to images of five monkey in shrine Kanayama jinja, Kawasaki city Kanagawa prefecture. Since ancient times, monkey have been considered to be messengers of Gods. In Sinmon gate in the shrine of Tokyo can be observed sculpture of monkeys, as defenders of sacred place, in addition to, at the Pavilion for prayers are images of monkey couple, as a symbol of matrimonial harmony and fecundity. Another example of monkeys with this symbolic, but another design are in shrine of Mitsugi jinja Konosu city Saitama prefecture. In Sarurahiko jinja in Ukyo district of Kyoto are located three sculpture of monkeys: monkey with the attribute of a priest of Shinto, «white monkey» and « three stone gods monkeys». In the course of research the author come to conclusion that analysis of the décor of Shinto shrines shows the absence of rigid framework between religion and art.
273-294 253
Abstract
The Eight Views of Xiaoxiang is a concept that appeared in China during the Song period (960-1279). Its creation and spread is associated with the names of famous cultural figures, such as Song Di (1015?-1080?), Shen Gua (1031-1095), Su Shi (1037-1101). In Japan The Eight Views of Xiaoxiang were introduced as a theme of Chan Buddhism art. Japanese authors, primarily the monks of the Zen school, began to create images and write poems on the theme of The Eight Views of Xiaoxiang, first of all they were poems in Chinese, but waka (Japanese songs), written in the form of five-line verses, also appeared. Over time, the concept of the eight views was adapted on Japanese soil. The province of Omi - Lake Biwa - is the first region to which it was spread. During Tokugawa era the theme of the Eight Views of Omi became popular, it was embodied primarily in the visual arts, most often the Eight Views of Omi are presented in color prints. Many prints contain the same cycle of poems. The same poems were presented in the "Collection of poems about famous places in Japan", published in 1680. In this book, like in a number of others, was discussed the question of the authorship of the poems of this cycle. Today the sustained version is that the author is Konoe Nobutada (1565-1614). Parodies were popular in the Tokugawa era. Parodies on the theme of the Eight Views of Omi exist in the visual arts and in poetry as well. Three poetic cycles are presented in the article: the first waka cycle on the theme of The Eight Views of Xiaoxiang by Reizei Tamesuke (1263-1328); “classical” cycle on the theme of The Eight Views of Omi by Konoe Nobutada; and a comic poetic cycle on the theme of The Eight Views of Omi by Ota Nanpo (1749-1823).
295-313 288
Abstract
The article discusses the causes and consequences of the self-value of emotion in the Japanese cultural space. The cause of this phenomenon, as well as of all the specific features that determine the national identity of any people, is revealed in its world view. The world view base, on which the Japanese type of comprehension of reality has been formed, was the result of a complex interweaving of Shinto beliefs with Buddhist and Taoist teachings. The lack of anthropocentrism, conviction of the universal interconnectedness of things and Shinto belief in the existence of the soul ko-koro in everything, whatever it was, are among the main components of it. As a result of the interaction of these components, a human perceived himself to be an integral part in the system of universal interconnectivity and interdependencies, equal to all other parts, and sought to maintain a harmonious interconnection between all elements of the Universe. Tracing the history of Japanese culture and summarizing the research data in this area, it can be said that emotional experience was not so much an aesthetic need as a moral duty, since emotion - a heartfelt response, - in some way was perceived as a link between different elements of the Universe. In addition Shinto belief in existence in everything, whatever it was, souls kokoro, provoked the aspiration “to see the invisible, to hear the inaudible”, to grasp the very essence of whatsoever. The invisible and the inaudible cannot be comprehended by the intellect and conseptualized in logical categories. They are perceived by feelings and emotions and can be expressed only in images. Hence the figurative-aesthetic type of perceiving reality, the self-value of emotion, the desire to sharpen the sensory-emotional perception, which were clearly revealed during the formation of Japanese identity (the Heian period 794-1185) and does not lose its relevance in subsequent periods up to our days. The special importance attached to sensory - emotional experience in perceiving the surrounding reality helped the Japanese to develop the ability to express in the artistic, aesthetic form, not only feelings, but sensations, and abstract concepts, as evidenced by their literature, art and crafts.
314-331 355
Abstract
This paper pays attention to various interpretations of Japanese political novels of the 1880s, a genre, which appeared at the dawn of modern Japanese literature. Based on free translations of Western literary works, political novels could be used for entertainment as well as carry certain political ideas. A good example is the work Underground Russia written by a Russian nihilist S. Stepniak-Kravchinsky and translated into Japanese by Miyazaki Muryu as Demons are Crying. The paper concentrates on the analysis of illustrations to Captain’s Daughter by A. S. Pushkin and to Demons Are Crying. The author of illustrations was the artist Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892), formerly known for his works in the ukiyo-e genre, in particular, for the so-called pictures of “bloody battles and murders”. It has been only recently that Yoshitoshi’s illustrations to literary works attracted attention of scholars, so that this topic still remains underexplored. Inspiration for his graphical works can be found in various sources, including engravings of St. Petersburg and guide-books of Western countries brought to Japan by the Embassy of Iwakura Tomomi (1871-1873) and made known by a historian Kume Kunitake who published a record of events and his impressions of the people and ideas they encountered. The paper argues that the artist more easily reproduced the external decorative elements of western style graphics, while the inner world of characters remained mysterious to him. He was particularly skillful in representations of women’s beautiful clothes in Western style. Illustrations by Yoshitoshi endowed political novels with enter-taining features allowing us to play down their assessment as instruments of Russia’s revolutionary influence on Japan. This paper could appear due to recent facsimile publication of the newspaper Jiyu Tomoshibi and creation of electronic version of Captain’s Daughter in Japanese translation.
332-349 279
Abstract
This article is devoted to the creativity of the cult film director Miike Takashi who has released over hundred films, video and television production since his debut in 1991. His works are usually associated with merciless murders, cruelty, blood, absurdity and unreal dreams. But at the same time even in the toughest of them there are always the touching sentiment moments. «Blade of Immortal» is his 100th and the first full-length English-language film, premiered at Cannes Film Festival last year. But foreign viewers remember this director for his most exciting psychological thriller «Audition», which brought him world fame. In his huge filmography the biggest place is occupied by criminal dramas - «Beyond the Limits», «The Brotherhood of the Yakuza: the War of Clans». But there are other works: funny and easy children films - «Zebra Man», «The Great War of Goblins», historical saga «Sabu», youth drama «Andromedia», many remakes of the old samurai movies - «13 Assassins» «Harakiri» and the films, which are based on the manga, anime and computer games etc. Moreover, among the works of Miike you can find an obvious mainstream, created for commercial success - «One Missed Call», and art-house tapes - «Izo», numerous motion pictures of the category «B» - «The Happiness of the Katakuris». The critics write about Miike different things, believing him to be one of the 10 Asian geniuses and recognizing him almost as a trendsetter for modern Japanese cinema in the West. Others, on the contrary, consider him as an artisan and a trash master. But anyway, today Miike is one of the brightest figures in Japanese cinema.
INTERNAL AND FOREIGN POLICY
9-28 280
Abstract
On May 27, 2018, Nakasone Yasuhiro, a distinguished Japanese politician of the postwar period and former Prime Minister of Japan, celebrated his 100th anniversary. The personality of Nakasone attracts special attention because it was a new type a politician, who left a remarkable trace in the political history of Japan. The success of Nakasone on the political arena is arguably associated with his phenomenal ability of political maneuvering, his talent for acquiring support of stronger political opponents and for creating temporary alliances. It is not accidental that people gave him the nickname “weathercock”. Unlike his predecessors on the Prime-ministerial position, Nakasone actively used media capabilities for creating a favorable image in the eyes of the public and for direct appealing to voters. Nakasone actually became the first leader of the LDP, who transformed his personal popularity among the electorate into a powerful intra-party political resource. Nakasone was an example of a successful reformer, whose initiatives for many years ahead set the vector for the development of administrative, tax, educational and social spheres of Japan. The Nakasone reforms have been included in many textbooks of public policy and public administration as extremely successful and effective ones, in contrast to the unsuccessful reforms in some European countries of the same period. In fact, in the heart of Nakasone neo-conservatism laid economic nationalism - Japan's self-assertion as a global economic leader capable of dictating its rules to the whole world. One of the main messages of Nakasone neo-conservatism was the idea of the need for Japan to stop following other nation’s patterns and to become completely independent in political and cultural meaning of the word. In addition, Japan, in his opinion, should not only adopt foreign experience, but also provide an attractive model to be followed by others. In this sense, it was an impressive call for the internationalization of Japanese cultural and spiritual values. Nakasone's institutional reforms faced fierce resistance from the government bureaucracy and, despite partial success, were not fully implemented. In the field of diplomacy, many initiatives Nakasone aimed at increasing the political role of Japan on the world stage remained unfinished during his Premiership.
29-54 511
Abstract
The article is dedicated to the comprehensive analysis of the role of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) in Japanese state and society. The authors trace the transformation of legal status and security posture of the self-defense forces throughout the entire post-war period of their existence, since their establishment under the Occupation regime till current administration of Shinzo Abe, evaluate the role of present-day JSDF in the political system, economy, and society, as well as pay particular attention to the prospects of Japan obtaining nuclear weapons. Despite the remaining substantial limitations on the exercise of military force as a foreign policy tool due the “peaceful” Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan and in spite of the limited-to-non-existent presence of JSDF on the international arena, in terms of capabilities the JSDF are compatible with or even surpassing other militaries. Besides that, despite the pacifist identity, widespread in Japan, there is a de-facto consensus in society concerning the significance and importance of the JSDF for the nation. The forces’ active participation in non-military activities, such as disaster relief, contributes considerably to this attitude. Based on this, the article formulates possible scenarios of future development of the JSDF, from the conservative one, according to which the present developments in the field of security policy will not lead to a qualitative change in the mission of the JSDF, which is currently geared mostly towards the defense of Japan itself, and also quite limited international cooperation, to a bolder one, according to which the said developments will, in the mid- and long-term perspective, lead to the qualitative change of Japan’s role in the international arena and transform it into a “normal state”, able and ready to use its armed forces not only for individual, but also for collective self-defense and eventually for a wider range of military operations.
55-76 383
Abstract
The main problems of political socialization of Japanese youth are studied in the paper. According to the author’s point of view, participation in the election process, youth movements, a growing interest in international issues are the principal trends and the main indicators of Japanese youth’s political activity and political socialization. Political socialization is the transmission of political culture to new generations of citizens in a given society and it includes such activities as voting, campaigns, attending, meetings participation, joining political party, current affairs, taking part in political discussions etc. Whether young people have ability quickly adapt to the changing circumstances of the world around them depends on the process of political socialization. The complexities that characterize the Japanese youth's political socialization process during the last decade and its outcomes have become especially evident now - young people exhibit a less developed sense of civic duty, and take the obligations of citizenship more lightly than older generations. One of the factors influencing young people’s tendency to be engaged in civic and political activities may be the fact that the traditional mobilizing institutions of politics in Japan are not especially interested in reaching out to young people. In the article the main problems of political socialization of Japanese youth are examined. Using the data from large-scale surveys of Pew Research Center and some data of Mainichi Shimbun surveys carried out in 2017, the author analyzes if young Japanese people are active participants of political process or play the role of unconcerned spectators. According to the author’s point of view, participation in election process, participation in youth movements, growing interest in international issues are the principal trends and the main indicators of Japanese youth’s political activity and political socialization of young people in contemporary Japanese society.
77-100 214
Abstract
Nonconventional approach to the assessment of Japan's Soft Power efficiency in the field of humanitarian cooperation with the countries of East Asia (primarily, China and the Republic of Korea) and also with Russia is outlined in the article. Specific features of Japan's Soft Power policy at the current stage and the historical prerequisites to the development of this direction in the Japanese foreign policy are considered. In author's view currently there is no alternative to the Japanese Soft Power - in the form of Hard Power, practiced by some other countries of the region. Success of Japan in the field of inbound tourism is noted and the reasons of steady growth in the number of foreign tourists are discussed. Besides, the statistic data of several previous years shows prevalence of Chinese and South Korean guests in Japan - both tourists, and residents, the general attitude of the Japanese to China and the Republic of Korea remaining negative. Deterioration in the demographic situation in Japan is also marked - the share of foreigners in the country is growing and this forces the Japanes to accept this situation. Issues of humanitarian cooperation between Russia and Japan are regarded separately. The Cross Year of two countries initiated by their leaders in 2018 is aimed to enhance mutual cooperation in a wide range of domains. The falling level of mutual trade turnover within the last 5 years is paid attention to alongside the low level of mutual tourism. Different reasons for the drop in the figures of Russian and Japanese tourists are given. Antipathy of the most part of the Japanese society towards Russia is viewed as a handicap to the development of mutual beneficial relations. Certain recommendations aimed at improving Russian-Japanese relations in the abovementioned domains are suggested. The article's primary goal is to inform experts working in respective fields about the Japanese successful projects for the purpose of sharing the Japanese experience and practices for the development of Soft Power and inbound tourism in other countries. Without doubt such experience will be beneficial and useful to Russia.
SPECIAL ISSUE: REFORMS AND TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF JAPAN AND RUSSIA (ON THE 150TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE MEIJI RESTORATION AND 100TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION)
350-366 337
Abstract
The reforms of the Meiji period should be recognized as extremely successful. Their program was promulgated at the very beginning of the Meiji reign and was recorded in the “Five charter oath” (1868). Meiji promised Shinto gods to make decisions based on “public gatherings” - and a parliament was created in the country (1889). Meiji promised that the ruling and the ruled should become closer to each other - and the medieval gap between the authorities and the subjects really narrowed, and the Japanese nation was formed from scattered territorial, class, confessional and professional groups. The third point about the development of personal initiative was also implemented. First of all, it refers to entrepreneurship in all its manifestations. It is precisely because of this that Japan has managed to accelerate industrialization. The fourth paragraph was about reforming the “bad habits of the past” and introducing governance in accordance with the principles of Heaven and Earth, which is usually understood as fair governance in accordance with the laws. The estate right was abolished, the law became one for all. The fifth paragraph talked about Japan’s greater openness to the world and about the development of education. This goal was certainly also achieved. As a result of the reforms, the Japanese nation was formed, a new Japanese was revealed to the world, characterized by selfless devotion to the emperor and homeland, sacrifice, activity, a relatively high level of education. During the Meiji period, there were rather pragmatic people in power who did not set unrealistic goals for the country and the Japanese. That is why the war with China and Russia was won. At the same time, patriotism tended to grow into chauvinism, the Japanese demonstrated such a high degree of loyalty to the emperor, which deprived him of critical attitude to government. It was under Meiji that the state acquired military hyperfunction. Meiji himself was lappointed commander in chief; as a result of the implementation of universal primary education and universal military service, military values were spread to the whole society. The discourse of early Meiji government condemned samurai morality, but by the end of his reign the word “bushido” had regained signs of respectability. Meiji died in a society that was much more militarized than in the year he was born. The power component of this society has increased many times. And its vector was directed outwards. Strategically, this meant that the values of military outweighed the values of a peace. The emperor, on whose behalf all the most important projects were carried out, had the status of a deity, he was outside the operation of ethical norms, and outside the zone of criticism. The excessive unity of the people and the authorities turned out to be sideways in perspective. The lack of different opinions and any strong opposition deprived Japanese society of immunity against government policy in the 30s. The twentieth century, when the incompetent leaders who were inspired by the utopian ideas of pan-asiaticism came to power, the Japanese obediently followed them. Attempts to create a colossal colonial empire were not supported by any well-thought strategy or resources. The result turned out to be exactly the opposite of what the Meiji leaders dreamed of: the country for the first time in its history was occupied by a foreign (American) army, lost part of its sovereignty, and the American army carried out its activities in the exterritoriality, the struggle against which was one of the main goals of the Meiji government.
367-382 163
Abstract
The article deals with a wide range of issues related to the nature of the Russian revolution and to the essence of socialism, built in the USSR, as well. The author analyzes the objective and subjective factors, which predetermined the specific way of the formaition of “Soviet socialism”. In Russia, at the time of the October Revolution, there were no economic prerequisites for socialism. In addition, the Soviet government was forced to take on the tasks left over from the bourgeois-democratic revolution. Objectively evaluating the situation, Lenin came to the conclusion that in such a peasant country like Russia it can not be a direct transition to socialism, and that a “special transition period” is needed, during which the economy as a whole will be managed on the basis of commodity-money relations, and relations with peasantry will be based on the principle of parity exchange. This idea began to realize with the introduction of the NEP, which has led to a rapid economic recovery. But since the late of 1920s, Stalin abandoned such principle of the NEP as cooperation with the peasantry, and moved on to the construction of socialism in one country. And the forced collectivization of agriculture became a spring-board to the industrialization. By the mid-1930s as a result of rapid industrialization the economic prerequisites of socialism were created, the dominant form of property became public one, represented by state-owned enterprises and collective farms, the planned economic system began to function. It was a special type of economic mobilization system, which was formed as a result of the formal perception of the image of socialism as a very centralized system. Gulag, the restriction of human rights, ideological control became an integral part of it. This system has demonstrated its strength during the war and post-war recovery, but in the course of time its flaws and limitations became more and more apparent. The growth rate decreased, there were queues and overstock, consumption lagged behind the western level, etc. Attempts to reform the “Soviet socialism” did not succeed and eventually it ceased to exist. Defining the “Soviet socialism” as a kind of “mutation” of socialism, the author nevertheless emphasizes its value in terms of the historical experience of mankind, noting that it has become a kind of “rehearsal” of socialism of the XXI century. The article also describes the socio-economic situation in present-day Russia.
ISSN 2687-1432 (Print)
ISSN 2687-1440 (Online)
ISSN 2687-1440 (Online)