Throughout the Heisei period, changes both in Japanese women’s individual life, gender equality and changes in economic opportunities for women undoubtedly helped fuel the transformation of their views on family life and motherhood, career-making and on their role in society. To understand these changes, the author analyzed a lot of Japanese sources, and focuses on four points: changes of Japanese women’s views on marriage/family and on child-birth; changes of women’s role in the labor market (in their career opportunities) and in social political life of the country. Many Japanese women became more educated than they used to be, it can be indicated with increasing numbers of women obtaining university degrees, and therefore gaining access to better jobs, higher incomes and greater nancial independence. It also allows women not only to identify themselves as “wife” and “mother”, but also to invest in education and careers. Thus, the prospect of settling down to married life appears relatively unappealing compared to the possibility of living a “fulfilling” life, leisure activities and high job satisfaction. And the changing labor market conditions not only spurred Japanese women to invest in careers, they also affected the family-formation behavior of women who followed this pathway. Some of these women decided to forgo motherhood entirely; others delayed fertility until they were well established in their careers. So women who chose to build their careers would have to ‘pay the price’ for their success, often by remaining single and childless. The pattern we see today is the result of changes since the 1990s.

An increasing number of Japanese women are joining the economy, but the Japanese labor market is still more friendly to men than to women. Although much has been done in recent years in terms of creating conditions for a fuller participation of women in the economic life of the country, in general, their employment model has not undergone major changes. It is more difficult for women than for men to get a position of regular worker, in terms of working conditions (salary level, opportunities for professional growth, job content, etc.) they are in a worse position than men. As before, due to the harsh conditions of lifetime employment, many female regular employees of Japanese firms after a child’s birth interrupt their careers, and returning to the labor market after a few years, they prefer to take jobs as non-regular workers. Housekeeping and childcare are also still mainly entrusted to women. The “glass ceiling” that Japanese women, making a career, clash with, “1 million yen wall” that pushes women into a non-regular employment zone - these are also today’s realities. The situation in the field of female employment has become one of the main factors of the emergence of a number of painful social phenomena, such as a reduction of the number of marriages, an increase in the share of unmarried young women, in the age of first marriage and first child birth, a decrease in the number of children in a family and fertility rate, etc. Meanwhile, perhaps the main reason for the preservation of the situation in the field of women’s employment is that ideas about the separation of the roles of women and men in the family, society, and at work are widespread in society, including among the Japanese women themselves. Therefore, it seems that it will take quite a long time till real changes become tangible.

The article analyzes the current state of economic relations between Japan and the countries of Southeast Asia - trade as the basic and most traditional form of economic cooperation, mutual investment, official development assistance. The changes that occurred in this area in the period from the turn of the 21st century to the present time are considered. The latest statistical data - the basis of the assessment of the current state of economic relations between Japan and Southeast Asian countries - is given. The analysis made it possible to conclude that Japan in the early 21st century was more turned in the field of foreign trade to the United States, the major economies of North-East Asia, rather than to the countries of South-East Asia, but at the same time, they have a certain, noticeable niche in trade with Japan. Based on the calculations carried out, the key partners of Japan in each of the three main areas of economic cooperation - trade, mutual investment, official development assistance - are identified from among the countries of South-East Asia. It was revealed that the main foreign trade partners of Japan among Southeast Asian countries are Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia - that is, economically more developed countries. ASEAN countries retain in the 21st century the position of significant suppliers of mineral fuel, raw materials, food, seafood to Japan. Japan, in turn, exports to Southeast Asia industrial goods, primarily engineering products. It is shown that since the middle of 2000-s the volume of FDI from Japan in the most developed countries of Southeast Asia has significantly increased. Japan’s much more modest trade and investment ties with the less developed Southeast Asian countries (Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia) are balanced by official development assistance (ODA). The analysis of the most relevant and effective in the 21st century formats of multilateral cooperation of Japan and Southeast Asian countries is also conducted.

In 1366 a mission from Korean state Koryo arrived in Japan. The main aim was to demand to pacify the pirates-wako terrorizing the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula. The paper focuses on the complicated, sometimes almost detective, circumstances of this mission and includes translation of the three Korean mission documents, copies of which preserved in Japan.

The political pamphlet «Yume monogatari» was written by Takano Choei (1804-1850), a well-known representative of the Dutch science (rangaku) in Japan. Choei lived in the first half of the 19th century, when interest in things from Europe increased significantly. This interest was due to the growing influence that European countries were having in the Asian region, particularly the spectacular achievements of Europeans in advanced fields of science and industry. It was becoming obvious to a few that Japan’s foreign policy isolation was a factor hampering social and technological progress. Therefore, Takano Choei utilized the rumors about the possible appearance of the American ship “Morrison” near the Japanese coast as a chance to criticize the Order of 1825 that was in force at that time which enjoined that foreign ships were to be immediately expelled from Japanese waters. Choei believed that the execution of this order could lead to great complications in relations with foreign powers, therefore the pamphlet took the form of a story about unrealistic events occurring in a dream as way to express his views on foreign policy issues. This paper presents a translation of this work with detailed comments on the text and foreign policy of Japan in late Edo Period. It is also suggested that, despite the punishment of Takano Choei, the bakufu seemed to indeed take into account some of his considerations when changing the rules for the treatment of foreign ships in 1842.

The article is devoted to the history of studying the religious and philosophical heritage of Shinran, one of the reformers of Japanese Buddhism of the Kamakura period, in the English-language historiography. The article defines the main stages of development of English-language studies on Shinran, approaches, and major works, specific to each stage. For the present stage, the following types of research are defined: historical, philosophical works and translations of sources, comparative studies, historiographic studies.

This article analyzes a response of various French jurists to a new phase of Japanese expansion into China - occupation of Manchuria in Autumn 1931 known as “Manchurian Incident” and establishment of puppet-state Manchoukuo there. The League of Nations as well as governments of almost all Great Powers condemned Japan’s action as “agression” and violation of international law, but French intellectuals hotly discussed these events using Chinese arguments as well as Japanese ones. European center of Carnegie Foundation in Paris invited Jean Escarra (1885-1955), Professor of the Paris University, Faculty of Law, to give six public lectures on “The League of Nations and Sino-Japanese Conflict” (January 12 to February 16, 1933). Legal advisor to several Chinese national governments in 1921-1929 and one of the principal authors of Chinese Civil Code of 1929 Escarra defended Chinese position in the conflict but stated that he was acting not as a representative of the Chinese side but personally as an independent scholar commenting and analyzing events from the point of view of international law and not of any part in the conflict. Doctor of Law Jean Ray (1884-1943) presented Japanese arguments in the case. Ray served as Professor of French law in the Tokyo Imperial University (1916-1919), as legal advisor to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (1918-1924, 1927-1929) and of Japanese embassy in Paris (1924-1927, 1929-1943). Ray also gave six public lectures on “Position, Activities and Policy of Japan in Manchuria” (March 9 to May 4, 1933). Both jurists used historical facts but their legal interpretations differed drastically because of taken part - for example, was Manchuria an integral part of “China proper” or only one of its possessions. Also this article presents a forgotten study of A.R. Tullie “Manchuria and Sino-Japanese Conflict Ahead of the League of Nations” (1935) who obtained for it Doctor of Law degree from the Toulouse University, Faculty of Law. Having meticulously analyzed the two sides’ arguments from the point of view of international law Tullie concluded that the case for Japan is much stronger. A study of French opinion and response to Japanese continental policy will not only enrich our knowledge about the history of this period but also will help us to understand better its political philosophy as well as working of the propaganda and image-making systems.

Despite its similarities with the great revolutions in other countries one of the most fundamental transformations in the history of Japan - Meiji Ishin (1867-1868) had significant differences. It was relatively bloodless manifesting a “smooth” transition from one system to another. The pursuit of “continuity” and the preservation of the “connection of times” came out as something “sacred” in the most difficult moment of Japanese history, when in August 1945 Japan decided to surrender and its only condition was to preserve the imperial system. Unlike the restorations of monarchies in European history, in Japan emperor’s coming back to power was not a counter-revolution, but just the opposite. The Japanese monarchy followed a “progressive” form of constitutional monarchy in its German (Prussian) version, which then was considered the most progressive and dynamic, but not as radical as the British with its predominance of the parliament. From two forms of constitutional monarchy: “the monarch reigns but does not rule” and “the monarch reigns and rules under the constitution”, in which the monarch becomes a hostage of the bureaucracy, Japan had chosen the second one with the provision that the Japanese emperor’s detachment from government and the actual authority of the bureaucracy were the original idea of those who made the revolution and were building a new state. The role of the emperor as a symbol in the post-war constitution of Japan, written by the occupying forces’ General Headquarters and regarded as the most radical measure of democratization of Japan, was in fact the same before the war. The symbolism or “spirituality” of the emperor’s power goes back to the original Japanese religion of Shinto, which was given a state status by the revolution. However, this was contrary to the nature of the Japanese, regarding religion rather as cultural and ethical, than as an ideological doctrine. Distinctive features of “Meiji Ishin” affected the dynamics of further transformations of the country until its defeat in the Second World War.

History of colonies under the rule of Japanese Empire in the first half of the 20th century has not been explored well enough so far. For example, history of Karafuto governorate “(1905-1945), which existed in the southern part of Sakhalin, is barely covered while some aspects of its history are not known at all. This article focuses on history of formation and socio-economic structure of Karafuto governorate - such as territorial development after the Russo-Japanese war, its role and status in the colonial system of Japan, the use of the main economic resources of the island and creation of socio-cultural space along with the memorialization of the colonial past of the northern borders of Japanese Empire. Besides that, in this article author highlights the process of liquidation of the governorate (it started after accession of the southern part of Sakhalin to the USSR territory after the Second World War) followed by passing the governance on to the soviet administration, co-residence of Soviet and Japanese people on the same territory during 1945-1948, along with deportation of Japanese people and fate of Korean population of the island. The article gives the examples of preservation of memory of Japanese presence on Sakhalin Island in both modern Japan and Russia.

The purpose of the study is to clarify the concepts of good and evil in the Japanese tradition of setsuwa tales based on the Konjaku monogatari-shu (1120s). The article compares the stories from 20^th and 27^th scrolls of the Konjaku. In both we are told about tengu, oni demons, foxes, wild boars, snakes, ghosts and other creatures, traditionally attributed to the evil spirits, mononoke. In the first case, the stories are set out from the Buddhist point of view, and in the second from the worldly, partly based on the Onmyodo teachings. In their examples, we can trace two different answers to the question of what human-hostile forces are and how one should defend oneself from them. Malicious creatures fool people, increase deception in the world, which itself is an illussion. The evil is taken not from the point of moral principles, but rather from the point of the ceremonial rules: not as a vice that must be exposed, but as a^[5] danger from which it is possible and necessary to be protected. At the same time, in Buddhist stories, demons try to lead a person out of the right path, and those who are consistent and “straight” are able to resist them. In worldly stories, on the contrary, “straightness” as a lack of freedom in choosing a path turns out to be an attribute of evil, but a person is freer and can outwit the forces of evil by choosing workarounds. Ultimately, the danger lurks inside the person himself: the heavy karma leads to misfortunes in present life, and evil spirits essentially only execute punishments meted out according to the law of retribution, just as experts in rituals, Buddhist and secular, act only as mediators in finding well-deserved blessings. Conclusion: contacts of humans with evil spirits in Konjaku are interpreted according to the doctrine of karma: as examples of retribution for good and evil. There are no creatures good or evil by nature, but there are connections between the living and the dead, humans and ghosts. Contacts with other worlds reveal the possibilities of choice, essentially the same ones that one has to face in everyday relationships with people; this is the instructive meaning of stories about evil spirits.

The article describes the religious mission which was the first attempt to convey to Europeans the truth about Japan and to let the Japanese learn about the Christian world. The Tensho embassy of 1573-1586, named after the Tensho era, in which the embassy took place, was an embassy sent by the Japanese Christian Lords to the Pope and the kings of Europe. The embassy was led by Mancio Ito who was the first official Japanese emissary to Europe. The idea of sending a Japanese embassy to Europe was originally conceived by the Jesuit Alessandro Valignano, and sponsored by the three Christian daimyos. They were accompanied by two servants, their tutor and interpreter Diego de Mesquita, and their mentor Valignano, who only accompanied them as far as Goa in Portuguese India, where he was to take up new responsibilities. The ambassadors arrived back in Japan on July 21, 1590. Besides, this article analyzes the role of Alessandro Valiniano, a Jesuit missionary who created the integration policy of evangelization of Japan: non-interference in the internal affairs of the country, respect for customs, traditions, adaptation to local culture. Jesuit model of early modern times: recognition of equality of European and Japanese cultures, integration into local society, rejection of monastic absolutism. Jesuit missionaries correctly assessed the importance of observing the Japanese etiquette and ritual. This was opposite to the medieval Franciscan model of missionary activity: the opposition to the non-Christian population, the absolutization of traditions, the monastery as the only place of service. But, still, in 1638, Catholic missionaries were finally expelled from Japan.

The study of theater and related aspects is of paramount importance, just as the study of any other important and significant part of the cultural heritage of Japan. Kabuki theater is a unique combination of sublime art with a coarse urban flavor, and this topic will always be a demand and relevant for researchers of the whole world to study, because kabuki includes a huge number of topics to investigate, from techniques and dramaturgy to costumes and props. The main goal of this work is to examine in detail the features and specificity of the performance of this theatrical genre and, as an example, to demonstrate them on one of the most famous plays in the kaidan genre. Kabuki, which can literally be translated as «the art of singing and dancing», is a type of traditional Japanese theater. Kabuki itself is a synthesis of dance, singing, musical accompaniment and drama, as well as colorful special effects, bright makeup and costumes. This article describes the most famous scenes associated with fantastic creatures in the theater, lists the most famous magic characters, and their role in the plays. It is also tells about the terms that are used to denote different actions, for example, a quick change of makeup or costume. In addition, this work describes the play by Tsuruya Namboku the Fourth, and also illustrates all the above on the example of the characters of the play about the ghost from Yotsuya, thanks to which it can be concluded that the image of the ghost of the main character - Oiwa had a significant influence on the subsequent image of vengeful spirits onryo. Also it describes the influence of the image of Oiwa on the modern representatives of the yurei in the horror genre, and what forms fantastic creatures that have descended from the stage take now. In addition, it tells about modern images of fantastic creatures, where they are used and how modern Japanese perceive them, as well as how they perceive this type of theatrical art. Using the example of various genres and plots of films, anime and doramas, it is concluded that the genre of kabuki and its images are still relevant for modern perception, and that there are some active attempts to make them engaging to the younger generation.

“Ainu Divine Songs Collection” or “Ainu Shinyoshu” is a selection of the song epos of Ainu, compiled in 1922 by young Ainu girl Chiri Yukie (1903-1922). Ainu are not numerous people living in Hokkaido. The name of these people came out of the word “ainu” that means “a man” of Ainu in their native language. In the old times, Ainu had been living in Sakhalin, Kurile islands and the south of Kamchatka peninsula, but this article focuses on Ainu living in Japanese island of Hokkaido, their folklore and culture. “Ainu Shinyoshu” is the compilation of 13 songs belonging to the genre kamui yukar, which means “songs of the gods”. In particular, it contains 11 songs about gods of nature and 2 songs, belonging to the genre oina, about human-god named Okikirmui. Kamui is a variety of Ainu’s gods. Nevertheless, kamui is not only a cult of nature. They are spirits whose existence in heavens does not differ from men’s life on earth. However, when they descend to the men’s world, they take the shape of animals, plants or other natural phenomena. The songs in “Ainu Shin’yoshu” are set out on behalf of the gods. They contain passages from these gods’ lives. We can understand Ainu’s idea of life, observations of the world around them, and their comprehension of their beings from their epos. Chiri Yukie recorded the songs of her people in order to preserve their traditions. On the grounds of her foreword, and the fact that the songs were recorded in both, Ainu’s and Japanese languages, it can be supposed that the goal of her work was to introduce Ainu’s traditions and their way of life to Japanese audience. At her time the discrimination and an active japanization of Ainu was an actual problem.

The article represents a translation of Hiratsuka Raicho's (18861971) manifesto “In the Beginning, Woman Was the Sun”. Hiratsuka Raicho was a pioneering Japanese feminist, who ventured to go against traditions and social norms. She was brought up in a wealthy family, that supported Raicho's will to get higher education. Hiratsuka Raicho was interested in religion, philosophy and ethics. She constantly sought self-discovery and self-fulfillment, practicing Zen. She also studied English and Chinese classics. Epoch of westernization also made Hiratsuka Raicho a pioneering Japanese feminist. In 1911 she founded Japan’s first all-women literary magazine “Seito” (“Bluestocking Journal”). This journal was unique because it was the first magazine in Japan that was written and published entirely by women. In the first issue of “Seito” Hiratsuka Raicho published her manifesto: “In the Beginning, Woman was the Sun”. It was a reference to women and to the spiritual independence which women had lost. She wanted to reject the only conventional role of women as “ryosai kenbo” (“Good wife and wise mother”). Hiratsuka Raicho's ideas of spiritual liberations and independence were very close to other Japanese women. Manifesto “In the Beginning, Woman Was the Sun” was definitely published for educated women, who sought not to be “good wives and wise mothers” and who were discontented with their lower social status.

Dazai Osamu is recognized as the classic of modern Japanese literature and one of the most outstanding authors of I-novel (watakushi sho:setsu) genre. Like Shiga Naoya and Kobayashi Hideo, Osamu was trying to find some new literature plots to express his usual existential experiences, so he used some classical Western stories quite often. Dazai took Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ for his story and managed to reverse a lot of original plot details and also managed to create some kind of literature phenomenon which can be called ‘I-closet drama’ (‘confessional’ closet drama). This publication is dedicated to the analysis of literature features of Osamu’s play in the wide context of comparison with the classical Western story and in the specific context of ‘confessional’ features of Dazai Osamu’s literature art. As Okuno Takeo was noticing, ‘New Hamlet’ has more common features with the original story than any other adaptation: the plot and main characters are almost the same. But the image of the ‘new’ Hamlet is personifying all of the philosophical and personal issues which are one of the key points of Osamu’s literature: inability of self-determination, the problem of ‘buffoonery’ as the only way of communication with the world, the problem of suspiciousness and complete lack of trust for people. Unlike Shakespeare’s ‘slow’, ‘hesitant’ and ‘spineless’ Hamlet who finds the reasons of his philosophical dissonance in inability of ‘tuning’ the reality under his moral principles, Dazai’s ‘new Hamlet’ did not even try to ‘tune’ the reality: the only and the most important problem for him was his own personality, his own ‘I’. Any changes in the world around him seemed totally impossible. He thought his main ‘mission’ was being a clown, using the buffoonery which, as Kamei Katsuichiro points, is one of the main ways of ‘serving people’ and also the only possible way to love them. In other words, the portrait of Osamu’s ‘new’ Hamlet continues the gallery of typical ‘anti-hero’ portraits of the writer’s art. Many critics pointed that these ‘anti-heroes’ are nothing else but some kind of confessional expression of Dazai’s true feelings and personal issues. But, in the opinion of Ando Hiroshi and Kamei Katsuichiro, the main ‘confessional’ concept of Osamu’s literature is actually a deliberate falsification based on the metamorphose of the writer’s multiple literature ‘I’.

The article is devoted to an important historical event that took place in May 2019 in Japan - the change of Imperial rule and, accordingly, the era of Imperial rule. On May 1, Crown Prince Naruhito ascended the Chrysanthemum throne. He replaced his father, Emperor Akihito. The article discusses the causes and consequences of this event for the country in terms of its domestic and foreign policy. Attention is drawn to the fact that Akihito left the throne of his own free will, which has not happened in Japan for the last more than 200 years. Despite the fact that under the current Constitution, the Emperor in Japan is only a symbol of the state and the unity of the nation, the influence of Emperor Akihito on political life and public sentiment in the country should not be underestimated. Features of change of monarchs in Japan distinguishing it from other countries of the world are emphasized. The new era of Imperial rule was called Reiwa. This term can be interpreted in different meanings. The word Reiwa was generally well received in Japanese society. However, some politicians questioned the correctness of the choice of the first character rei in the title because of its association with the meaning of "order". In Japan, the idea of abdication of the current Emperor caused a furor and rejection from the conservative forces, which are based on Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. They fear that the resurgence of the debate about the future of the Imperial family may once again raise the question of the possibility of a woman inheriting the throne in Japan. An important aspect of the activities of the Imperial house is not only to maintain ties with the monarchies still preserved in some countries, but also to strengthen Japans relations with other states - the so-called imperial diplomacy. The reception of US President D. Trump by the new Japanese monarch and his wife at the end of May should symbolize the priority of relations between Tokyo and Washington. The article also touches upon the history of relations between the Imperial house of Japan and Russia.

The article covers new trends in the Japan-India relations. The rapprochement of the two states which began after the end of the Cold war was given impetus in the 2000s, especially evident during the tenure of Prime Minister Abe (2006-2007, 2012 - now). The aim of this article is to study the dynamism of the bilateral relations during the period of premiership of Shinzo Abe, and to analyze the factors which influence the process of the two countries getting closer to each other. The shift in Japan’s focus towards the Indian Ocean and the announcement of the Free and Open Indo Pacific Strategy is driven by the desire to contain growing China’s influence, and India is seen as one of Japan’s main partners. Under Abe the level of relations was upgraded to special strategic and global partnership, intensive dialogue is being carried out both on bilateral and trilateral levels (with the US and Australia), and the Quad cooperation is being discussed. Defense cooperation is gaining momentum, including military exchanges, drills, defense technology cooperation. Of special interest is the perspective of joint US, Japan, India defense cooperation in the Indian ocean. As an answer to the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative Japan is pushing its Quality Infrastructure Initiative which includes investing heavily in India’s infrastructure and cooperating with India in the third countries. New prospects for economic cooperation emerge which include new spheres such as atomic energy cooperation, space exploration, IT and startups. Complementarity of the economies of the two countries which is based on combining Japan’s technologies and Indian human resources is at the core of further cooperation. It can be said that the closer relations between Japan and India are part of their strategies aimed at the containment of China, and their bilateral relations reach the level of quasi-alliance. At the same time considering close trade, economic and political relations of both India and Japan with China and India’s policy of non-alignment it should be noted that there are factors limiting possible forms of cooperation and slowing down further rapprochement.

The issues of the historical past manifest themselves differently in the foreign policy mechanisms and processes of Russia and Japan. The article analyzes the role and place of the problems of the historical past in the formation of the image of the partner country in the public opinion and political leadership of the two countries. According to the author, the image of Japan in the postwar USSR was not associated with «historical grievances», as the postwar generation of Soviet people did not remember the Russian-Japanese war, and the Japanese intervention in Siberia and the Far East of 1918-1922 did not cause a negative attitude to Japan at the mass level. In addition, it was believed that Japan, suffering under the heel of Americans, had already received a cruel lesson in history. Currently, Russia’s position on the only unsolved problem of the historical past, the problem of the border line, is that it must be solved on the basis of the 1956 Declaration. However, the prospect of the transfer of the two South Kuril Islands to Japan in accordance with the terms of this Declaration is not popular among Russian citizens. As for Japan, its public opinion is dominated by a negative attitude towards Russia, largely due to the assessment of its role in the World War II as a country that committed aggressive actions against Japan and alienated from it its ancestral territories. The feeling of being a victim in this context creates a sense of psychological comfort for the Japanese and allows them to alleviate their sense of guilt in connection with Japan’s aggressive policy in Asia during the World War II. The author comes to the conclusion that Japan, aware of the risks that are fraught with a significant deterioration in relations with Russia due to the different positions of the parties on the problems of the historical past, in the future will not inflate the territorial problem and other «historical grievances», especially since the prospects for their settlement are practically not palpable.